Theories Regarding The Latitudinal Diversity Gradient Biology Essay

Theories Regarding The Latitudinal Diversity Gradient Biology Essay Aim Different publications theories regarding the latitudinal diversity gradient were examined and analysed to attempt to show how theories explaining the latitudinal diversity gradient have changed in the period 1980-2010. Method In total, six main theories were identified from the literature and resources studied by searching abstracts and articles for relevant key words. Main Conclusions The main conclusion drawn was that no single theory can adequately explain the latitudinal diversity gradient. Species diversity is ultimately controlled by a combination of factors and until there is conclusive proof or agreement on this subject biogeographers and biologists will continue to hypothesize on the matter of the driving factors behind the latitudinal diversity gradient. Key Words Latitudinal Diversity Gradient, Geographical, Species, Species Richness, Taxa, Hypothesis, Biotic, Historical Perturbation, Climate Stability, Climate Harshness, Mid-Domain, Evolutionary Rate, Evolution. Introduction The latitudinal diversity gradient is the term used to describe the decrease in species richness as one moves away from the equator. [1] Discovered by Alexander von Humboldt in 1799, it has remained one of the key questions in Evolutionary Ecology. Understanding the latitudinal diversity gradient is essential in our understanding of the spread of invasive species, disease and more pertinently, the effects of global climate change (Bradford et al 2006) Hillebrand (2004) identified that this subject has received great attention but the majority of studies have concentrated on only one or a small number of organisms. An example of this being Krebs (1985) who examined snake and ant species throughout America. In the past 30 years there have been many different theories that attempt to explain the latitudinal diversity gradient, from further reading into each individual theory it became apparent that no individual theory is entirely self supporting, rather a combination of each is perhaps the best way to try and answer the question of what is the driving factor behind the latitudinal diversity gradient. Theories Species-Energy The species-energy theorem centres on the hypothesis that it is the amount of available energy that governs the potential species richness of the system. Fraser and Currie examined this hypothesis in their 1995 paper The Species Richness-Energy Hypothesis in a System Where Historical Factors are Thought to Prevail: Coral Reefs. They found that the best environmental predictors of diversity were temperature and biomass and also that there was little supporting evidence for other hypotheses such as environmental stability. Turner et al (1987) found that the diversity of butterflies, measured as the number of species is highly correlated with sunshine and temperature during May to September, with these two variables accounting for nearly 80% of the variance in diversity. Mid-Domain Effect Originally proposed by Colwell and Hurtt, (1994) this hypothesis works on the basis that it is geographical constraints that contribute to species richness. Colwell et al (2004) state that if species ranges are shuffled randomly within a bounded geographical domain free of environmental gradients, ranges overlap increasingly toward the centre of the domain, creating a mid domain peak of species richness. There is still debate over whether or not the Mid Domain Effect is responsible for the latitudinal diversity gradient as empirical support for it is often weak. Zapata et al (2005) Effective Evolutionary Time Effective evolutionary time hypothesizes that it is evolutionary time and the factors associated with it, such as environmental energy, mutation, generations and selection that are responsible for the diversity gradient. Rhode (1992) Climate Harshness and Climate Stability The Climate Harshness theory speculates that fewer species are found at high latitudes due to their inability to cope with the pressures that the environment places upon them. Climate Stability proposes that the reason for the diversity gradient is due to species specializing into narrower and narrower niches due to stable climate conditions, resulting in increased speciation and therefore resulting in temperate areas at high latitude having a low diversity as they experience more changeable weather events throughout the year. Climate stability is even observed in marine environments with strong latitudinal gradients being observed. Kaustuv et al (1999) as well as in terrestrial environments. Lima-Ribeiro et al (2009). Evolutionary Rate Cardillo et al (2005) argue that the increased diversity observed at lower latitudes is due to high evolutionary rates resulting in increased speciation. Mettelbach et al (2007) found that there was evidence for higher rates of diversification in the tropics, with studies of latitudinal variation suggesting greater speciation at lower latitudes. The results from these studies show that there is indeed a link between low latitudes and evolutionary rate resulting in increased speciation. Discussion Since the 1980s there have been suggestions of new theories and re examinations of others, for example Zapata et al (2005) re examine the mid domain effect and address its criticisms. Each of the individual theories discussed earlier proposes its own explanation for the latitudinal diversity gradient. Some hypotheses are circular and some are founded on insufficient evidence, Rhode (1992). In the past 30 years theories purporting to explain the latitudinal diversity gradient have changed from supporting one viewpoint as the sole cause of the latitudinal diversity gradient to being more inclusive of other hypotheses, the Evolutionary time theory is the most inclusive of other theories as it recognises that no single factor can be the cause of such a complex system. References and Literature Cited 1. On-Line Biology Book, L, Latitudinal diversity gradient http://mac122.icu.ac.jp/biobk/BioBookglossL.html Accessed on 17-08-2010 Hawkins, B.A, Diniz-Filho, J.A.F, Jaramillo, C.A., Soeller, S.A., 2006. Post-Eocene climate change, niche conservatism, and the latitudinal diversity gradient of New World birds. Journal of Biogeography. Cardillo, M. Orme, C. D. L., Owens, I.P.F. 2005. Testing for Latitudinal Bias in Diversification Rates: An Example Using New World Birds. Ecology. Colwell, R.K. Hurtt, G.C 1994. Nonbiological Gradients in Species Richness and a Spurious Rapoport Effect. The American Naturalist, Vol. 144, No. 4 October 1994 Colwell, R,K. Rahbeck,C. Gotelli, N,J. 2004 The Mid-Domain Effect and Species Richness Patters: What have we learned so far? Vol. 163. No.3 March 2004 Fraser, R.H, Currie, D.J. 1995. The Species Richness-Energy Hypothesis in a System Where Historical Factors are Thought to Prevail: Coral Reefs. The American Naturalist Vol.148, No. 1 July 1996 Hillebrand, H. 2004. On the Generality of the Latitudinal Diversity Gradient. The American Naturalist, Vol 163, No. 2. 2004. Kaustuv, R., Jablonski, D., Valentine, J. W. 1999. Dissecting Latitudinal Diversity Gradients: functional groups and clades of marine bivalves. The Royal Society Krebs, C.J.1985. Ecology. The Experimental Analysis of Distribution and Abundance. Third edition. HarperRow, New York. Lima-Ribeiro, M., Diniz-Filho, J. A. F., Barberi, M. 2010. Climate Stability and the Current Patterns of Terrestrial Vertebrate Species Richness on the Brazilian Cerrado. Quaternary International, Volume 222, Issue 1-2. August 2010 Mittelbach, G. G., Schemske, D. W., Cornell, H. V., Allen, A. P., Brown, J. M., Bush, M. B., Harrison, S. P., Hurlbert, A. H., Knowlton, N., Lessios, H. A., McCain, C. M., McCune, A. R., McDade, L. A., McPeek, M. A., Near, T. J., Price, T. D., Ricklefs, R. E., Roy, K., Sax, D. F., Schluter, D., Sobel, J. M. and Turelli, M. 2007. Evolution and the latitudinal diversity gradient: speciation, extinction and biogeography. Ecology Letters Rhode, K. 1992. Latitudinal Gradients in Species Diversity: The search for the primary cause. Oikos. Vol. 65, No. 3. December 1992 Turner, J.R.G. Gatehouse, C.M and Corey, C.A. 1987. Does Solar Energy Control Organic Diversity? Butterflies, Moths and the British Climate. Oikos, Vol. 48. No.2 Zapata, F.A., Gaston, K. J., Chown, S. L. 2005 The Mid-Domain Effect Revisited. The American Naturalist, Vol. 166, No. 5 November 2005.

Lawsuit In Movies

The movie North Country featured Josey Aimes, the woman with two kids who only wanted to make life better and happier for her family. After leaving her abusive husband, she found a job as hairdresser. But learning that working in the local mine could pay her good enough, she applied for it not knowing the prejudices and negations received by women miners. As days passed by in her life as a miner, she started to notice the dominance of the clan of Adam in that part of the country. Everyday, she could hear sexist jokes, and disrespectful comments from male coworkers, she began to outrage turning herself the object of hate, but at the same time, of lust. She later found out that the women in her hometown were so scared to come out of their shell†¦ that nobody even wanted to stand by her side. With the help of a local lawyer, she filed for a sexual harassment case against her workplace, when she was nearly raped. The movie opened with a big bang of emotions and scenarios that continuously built the excitement of any viewer to follow the journeys and decisions made by the female protagonist. Events like going away from her husband, getting inside the manly world of mining, and being the herculean woman amidst the fangs and stings of men, kept true to the philosophy of Niki Caro – women empowerment, like the Whale Rider. The director was able to present the powerhouse impact of the scenes attributed to a community enveloped in discrimination against women. Charlize Theron played the protagonist woman and added merits to her credentials. North Country was based on the case filed and won by Lois Jensen against the Eveleth Mines. It took over two decades before the charge was settled. Indeed, she made history by changing the course of sexual harassment law in the United States of America. The lawsuit created rooms for the rights of women against sexual harassment, discrimination and other negative actions towards women in the workplace. Erin Brokovich With three children to give a decent life, she asked her lawyer to help her get a work. She later found her career in researching about the case of water pollution and sickness among the children in a small town. She then excavated that the cause was the toxic wastes dumped by the huge company in the area. The worse part was that the company was trying to hide it from investigations. The company was so powerful that it could just make her dead in the records, but she was not stopped by this. She went an extra mile just to expose the truth. But she is not your ordinary good girl, smart employee in the office. She had skeletons in her closets, too. She usually left her children with her biker boyfriend, acting like she was not the mother. Dressed like a whore, she made Erin Brokovich heroine in a small town when she brought down a deep-pocketed company. Steven Soderbergh directed this film with wit and passion. He maximized the potentials, including the natural sexiness, of Julia Roberts, who played the role so effectively in return. This might have driven the female part of the audience crazy of desiring to be like Erin in their worlds. Every woman wanted to be the new modern woman, dressing casually but could carry the world when asked to. This is like a refresher movie of what Roberts was in the Pretty Woman, the role that made her the highest-paid and the most sought-after actress in Hollywood. The movie was based on the story of Erin Brokovich who helped the burdened community win over the Pacific Gas & Electric Company. She did not have the looks or appearance of a lawyer. But she managed to go on her way to help in the success of the largest settlement for a direct lawsuit ever. This clearly shows that if you have done something bad, it will haunt you no matter where you are and what status you belong. Moreover, no matter how good you are in hiding or covering your wrongdoings, the issue itself could find itself in the surface. A Civil Action A community struck with something that made the people vulnerable to skin rashes, and a leukemia outbreak among the youth, was finally put to limelight when they start to take their fate against two big corporations. The residents wanted someone to apologize for the death of their children. Their need for someone to defend them came at the right time for the firm of Jan Schlichtmann, who chose cases they believe they could get to success. Usually, their clients were poor, putting a pro-people and pro-justice on their image. But in his mind and heart, the lawyer was hoping for large settlement money. As they were getting through the lawsuit, the firm was also continuously sinking below the line of bankruptcy. The movie was based on the primary accounts of Jonathan Harr during the proceedings. This embedded the movie inside the courtroom. Stories about the Woburn victims were set aside for the presentation of what really happened inside the hearing of the case. John Travolta gave justice to the character of Schlichtmann, as being the ambitious lawyer, who wanted to nail down WR & Grace and Beatrice Foods, for a substantial amount of money. He also made a mistake when he was carried with the story of one of the victims. Robert Duvall, who played the antagonist Jerome Facher, also made a great effort in his role as the lawyer of one of the companies involved in the issue. Environmental crime is probably one of the celebrated cases in the history of man. This is because different sectors participate in the deliberation of points, trying to sound pro-environment. Oftentimes, big industrial companies are usually the subjects. Justice has its price, goes the tagline of the movie that peeked through the climax of the movie wherein the victims got a whopping amount of settlement money. This shows the negative attachments of the judicial system of the country. It made clear that money could have the power to break the shield of morality, humanity, and most of all, love. Reference: Caro, N (dir). 2005. North Country. USA: Warner Bros. Pictures. Soderbergh, S (dir). 2000. Erin Brokovich. USA: Jersey Films. Zaillian, S (dir). 1998. A Civil Action. USA: Touchstone Pictures.      

The Fundamentals of College Admission Essay Revealed

The Fundamentals of College Admission Essay Revealed The Ugly Secret of College Admission Essay The college application essay isn't the perfect forum to confess all your previous crimes, failures, and misdeeds. Application essays about challenges reveal how you respond to difficulty to individuals who are rather interested in how you'll take care of the subsequent four years by yourself. There's no topic too hard for our experts. Regardless of the fact there are many high school essay topics one would choose, it may take them a lengthy time due to uncertainty. Getting admission into your preferred high school might be the desire of your heart. If it's so, then you might be having some difficult time for a student in addition to being a writer. Many students take lots of time contemplating on the suitable topic they'd pick for their essay writing. 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The War On Gun Control - 1296 Words

Jason Edwards English 3 08 May 2015 The War on Gun Control The debate over gun control is one of the most heated debates currently going on in the government, and in the general population of the United States. One side of the debate says that guns are a legal right protected by the Second Amendment, and help to keep citizens safe if they are ever attacked. The other side says that guns are an evil thing, that they are the cause of death and destruction, and they want to infringe on American s rights, and basically negate the entire second amendment. Gun Control is something that would really hurt this nation. If guns are banned, law abiding citizens will turn in their guns, and criminals will be free to do whatever they want without the fear of a citizen having a gun to stop them. Pro Gun control advocates are under the impression that if guns are banned, the violent crime rate will go down exponentially. As some of you may know, the United Kingdom has a 100% gun ban. Rifles, Pistols, Shotguns, everything. The Police don t even carry guns over there! A wordpress article by Steven Goddard compares the violent crime rates in the United States, and the United Kingdom. This is what he found. â€Å"According to the FBI, there were 1.2 million violent crimes committed in the US during 2011.According to the UK government, there were 1.94 million violent crimes in the UK during 2011.† This already sounds bad enough for the people tryingShow MoreRelatedThe War on Gun Control Essay957 Words   |  4 Pages Gun Control War We are no stranger to gun control debate and controversy here in the U.S. We hear of gun deaths, mass and school shootings on the news on a daily basis. Is it safe to say that the U.S. needs permanent gun control laws to protect its citizens or would it be in violation the constitution? The second amendment was written by our founding fathers back in 1791 in a day where it was common for any citizen to own a weapon. 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In 1791 James Madison had written the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights makes up the first 10 amendments in the Constitution. Madison had to create this Bill of Rights in order to win over the state of New York in order to rewrite the Constitution himself. The right to keep and bear arms is the second amendmentRead MoreGun Control Persuasive Essay755 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"The only thing that stops a bad guy with a gun is a good guy with a gun.† says NRA vice president Wayne Lapierre on gun control. Most know that gun control is the set of laws or policies that regulate the manufacture, sale, transfer, possession, modification, or use of firearms by civilians. These policies, in fact, don’t solve most problems as intended, but can even cause more. Guns are not the problem; putting laws on guns doesn’t resolve the fact that killers will kill regardless. The right to

Occupiers Liability in the Commonwealth Caribbean

TOPIC 4: †¨OCCUPIER’S LIABILITY Occupier’s liability forms part of the liability arising from the occupation of premises. It is therefore related to nuisance, Rylands v Fletcher, breach of statutory duty and basic negligence. Occupier’s liability covers liability for damage (usually personal injury) which occurs to entrants on to the premises of the defendant. In the Commonwealth Caribbean, Barbados and Jamaica have enacted statutes substantially similar to the English Occupiers Liability Act 1957. Barbados: Occupiers Liability Act, Cap. 208†¨Jamaica: Occupiers Liability Act 1969 (Vol. Xiii, Laws of Jamaica) All other jurisdictions apply the common law rules, but it has been said that the Occupiers Liability Acts could be regarded as†¦show more content†¦an unrailed plank on a ship might be an unusual danger for a passenger, but not for a seaman. Indermaur v Dames (1866)†¨Principle: ‘invitee’ was defined in this case as a person who enters premises ‘upon business which concerns the occupier, and upon his invitation, express or implied.’ Harripersad v Mini Max Ltd (1978) (TT)†¨The plaintiff was shopping in the defendants’ supermarket when she slipped and fell to the ground injuring her knee. It was proved that the plaintiff had fallen in a part of the store where water, dripping from an air conditioner, had collected on the floor. The defendants had placed sheets of newspaper on the floor to absorb the water but, after some time, the paper became saturated and the water continued to collect there. The floor itself was made of terrazzo tiles, which were known to have a very smooth surface, and the presence of the water made it ‘slippery and potentially dangerous to customers’.†¨Held: the plaintiff’s fall was caused by the wet floor, which was an unusual danger known to the defendants, who were therefore liable in negligence.†¨Ã¢â‚¬Å"The question of whether an existing state of affairs rendering premises dangerous is to be considered unusual or not depend upon the particular fa cts and circumstances of each case..the condition of the floor...amounted to...an unusual danger...The danger with which the plaintiff was there confronted that morning was not only unusual, it was...one of which the defendants were fully

Working Conditions for Children During Industrial Revolution Free Essays

Working Conditions of Children During the Industrial Revolution During the beginning of the industrial revolution there was a high demand for labour. Families travelled from rural farm areas to newly industrialized and larger cities in hope of finding new work. To survive even in the lowest class of poverty families would have had to have every single able family member working, this includes children. We will write a custom essay sample on Working Conditions for Children During Industrial Revolution or any similar topic only for you Order Now Children as young as six were put to work in factories. They worked for up too 19 hours a day with only one hours break in total. Work was hard and the children were often paid barely anything. These fragile human beings were; frequently overworked, underpaid and ill treated for a long time. They didn’t have small jobs either; their jobs were physically intense and required a lot of effort and strength. With little medical knowledge in comparison to today these children were prevented from growing healthily and naturally. Deformedness was common amongst many of the children due to the high amount of physical exertion performed by them. Their growth was slowed down and they suffered in multiple other ways. The treatment of children in factories was horrendous to say the least. They were verbally abused and little care was payed to their safety and wellbeing. Sever punishments were also in place for the slightest disobedience. It was incredibly unsafe to work in the factory environment due to the large machineries used, which very often proved a hazard to the children. With the enormous machines fingers and body parts of theses skinny children could often result in deaths due to serious injuries or accidents. Sometimes children fell asleep from working excessive hours and occasionally the sheer force of the machines would just crush them. In factories that were unsanitary there was harsh exposure to dangerous chemicals and toxins consistently. Some children died from excessive inhalation of the fumes. Children who worked in coalmines often died from explosions and injuries. Overall there was extreme difficulty faced with being a child and having to grow up working during the industrial revolution. How to cite Working Conditions for Children During Industrial Revolution, Papers

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of representative vs direct democracy free essay sample

Essay Title – Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of representative vs direct democracy Democracy is a word known to most persons today, in the Western world atleast, and almost always has positive connotations associated with it. Indeed from far left to far right, democracy has been proclaimed and embraced by political parties, indeed for a party to profess democracy is seen as necessary to its claim of legitimacy. The word democracy derives from the Greek prefix Demos which could be seen as people, or in ancient Greece was associated with the poor and the suffix Kratos, which could be seen as power or rule'(Heywood, 2004; 221). The nuance in translation has particular significance, and is not due to ambiguity in translation. It is the purpose of this essay to first set out an account of what we mean by legitimacy, for our discussion of democracy as the most important form of legitimacy hinges upon such an account. We shall then take representative and direct democracy in turn, discussing their strengths and weaknesses. And conclude with this authors opinion on the equal credibility of both forms, depending on the context within which they are put to practical use. Foundational to the existence of any democratic government is the concept of legitimacy, that is; right over might; legitimacy over power, and out of which grows duty over obedience. In the words of Jean-Jacques Rousseau The strongest is never been strong enough unless he turns might into right and obedience into duty'(Palgrave.com, Chapter 4: Democracy and Legitimacy). Should a government fail to evolve so, its rule is no more than despotic subjugation, and its demise is most likely only a matter of time as the subjugated will inevitably revolt and take back power. Rousseau has been seen as a highly influential figure in, if not indeed the father of, modern liberal political thought, with the school having its foundations in enli ghtenment thinking(Garrard in Kurian et al, 2011: 508). This is an important starting point when considering the strengths and weaknesses of either form of democracy. The first form of democracy, that of direct or pure democracy, has its roots in the classical idea forged it ancient Athens. The men of Athens were expected to have continuous and direct participation in the decision making and running of their city, and any public offices held were allotted by way of rota or the casting of lots(Scrunton, 1982). Although in practice the electorate was discriminatory and therefore not truly representative of all citizens, those who did participate were not politicians. The vocations of participants would be quite diverse, and therefore we encounter the first important point relating to direct democracy, education. If the decisions of the community are dependent on every individuals understanding of the decision being made, then education is key. To take the modern day example of the upcoming referendum on Scottish independence, this can be seen as a form of direct participation, the decision being made is a profound one and a decision either way will have significant and long term implications for each Scottish citizen. Therefore in the interest of the greater good of the community, we have each of us a duty to educate ourselves on these implications. In this way we can see the idea of legitimacy being championed, after all as we all become less aware of our own opinions, usually ill informed, and educate ourselves on the matter, the social institution known as the state, within which Rousseau saw corruption lying, would begin to take on a literal life of its own and individual interests within this sphere would dissipate allowing for the purity of the states greater good(Wokler, 2001: 44-70). The idea of the state taking on a life of its own is important, the general will is not to be seen as the sum total of individual wills, but the will of the state alone. As obedience becomes duty, the decision made in the best interest of the state could in theory, be contrary to any one individuals best interest. It goes without saying that education then is a great benefit of direct democracy, on an individual level an educated populace leads to greater awareness of oneself, other citizens and the state within which one lives. This in turn reduces crime and social issues(such as poor parenting, domestic abuse etc) and would then in theory reduce the need for public spending on public sector spending. The level of education required however, especially in light of the complexities of modern living, would require a significant amount of an individuals time, this would affect the number of hours a citizen could contribute to their employment, and break the continuity of that work. This would then affect the productivity of the state, the domestic economy would shrink and given the importance of the economy in the modern world this would have dire consequences, most likely resulting in economic collapse. Direct democracy also makes the assumption that intellectual education is sufficient for a person to make an informed decision, to the neglect of practical education. One would rather have the chef cook ones meal than a person who has merely studied the subject of cooking. For a population base to undergo such a level of practical and intellectual education in secular society is impossible. A second point to note about direct democracy is the sense it gives the individual of having control of his own destiny, taking Scottish independence again, if the decision was made for us by the Hollyrood parliament whether the results of independence were successful or otherwise, we would feel that we were in effect subjugated and in such cases one always tends to focus on the negative. If however we are involved in the decision, for better or worse as individuals we would feel we had a part to play in that outcome, and in turn our own destiny. There are other issues to take into account however, unless an electorate are all equally enthused over participation, something which is ultimately an intangible variant in the equation, then referendums can lead to inconsistent and unrepresentative decision making. Westminster almost unanimously opposes Scottish independence, and as the referendum looms Torres and Whigs will most likely unite in opposing the SNP propaganda campaign with their own opposing it. History has shown favor to the campaigners with the most resources at hand, and as propaganda becomes more insidious in method, one must question just how in control are citizens over their own personal vote. Coming on finally to representative democracy. This is the form most recognized today when we think of liberal democracy. In this form people elect an enlightened group of people, usually politicians, within whom they vest a measure of their natural freedom and liberty, to act on their behalf to make decisions pertaining to the running of the country. The most common form this takes in contemporary society is that of parliaments and presidencies. For the purposes of this essay we shall focus on parliaments. Within this form of representative democracy political parties with varying ideologies all compete for public vote in elections, which arguably is the only real way in which legitimacy is manifest. Their are a plethora of ways parliaments can be arranged, but of importance in the first instance is how manageable this makes public participation. In direct participation the whole electorate must turn out to vote, this is logistically unrealistic, if not impossible in secular society, and would slow the political system down tremendously. In Representative democracy, a politician takes the place of the whole chunk of society which he represents and can focus 100% of their time on fulfilling this role. This relieves the citizen of the enormous burden that political participation would involve, and in turn allows for greater productivity, benefits the economy and gives the citizen the feeling of freedom from the state and this could then be seen as a counterpoint in the argument of what system provides the greater feeling of freedom and control of destiny. The downside of this form of democracy is its susceptibility to corruption and the infiltration of politicians with a self seeking intent. As people feel less of an affinity with the political process, they loose interest and as the decisions a government make are tremendously diverse and complex, it makes it easy for politicians to hide their true intentions and in effect subjugate the populace, at which point it is no longer democratic and legitimacy is lost. The apathy felt by most Westerners over politicians and their rhetoric speaks volumes. There is an element of ignorance is bliss to this however, and we enjoy the subjugation under the illusion of freedom, so long as we are allowed to fill our time as we see fit. In conclusion this essay wishes to attest a prejudice neither way toward direct or representative democracy. They are both sound in reasoning, and have both been proven historically to be equally successful and fallible, and both continue to be used all around us in social institutions. Take for example the Christian church, Baptist are congregational and operate under the direct form of democracy, Presbyterians have a hierarchy and operate under the representative system. The question of which system to use within a communal context depends entirely upon the size and complexity of the constituency, and the number of persons within it. Direct has worked well within smaller rural settings, and representative the only logistically feasible in large metropolitan areas.